Land Rover: History

WWII Willys Jeep

The man responsible for the development of the Land Rover was Maurice Wilks. He was the chief designer at the Rover car company at the end of World War II. He had been using a was surplus Willys Jeep on his farm in Anglesey for a variety of functions but found that parts for his Willys jeep were only available if bought in bulk. His brother, Spencer Wilks, was the general manager of Rover at the time and together with him they decided that there was a market for a good off road utility vehicle that was small, versatile and rugged, suitable for farmers.

The Wilks Brothers

The first Land Rover was made in 1947 being a hybrid which utilised a Jeep chassis and transmission with a Rover engine and gearbox. The first prototype required the driver to sit in the middle astride the gearbox. A pre-production batch of 48 vehicles were then produced.

Land Rover 1947 / 48 Prototype

On 30th April 1948 the Land Rover was launched at the Amsterdam Motor Show. Due to the post-war steel shortage and the plentiful availability of aircraft aluminium Land Rovers were manufactured using a rustproof aluminium and magnesium alloy. This led to the development of their reputation as tough, corrosion resistant vehicles. Early vehicles were all painted green due to the use of military surplus aircraft cockpit paint supplies. The Land Rover was classed as a commercial vehicle and therefore it was free from Purchase Tax.

Series I Land Rover

Between 1948 and 1951 the Land Rover used an 80 inch wheelbase and a 1.6 litre petrol engine. In 1949 a second, more comfortable body option was introduced. This option was called the Station Wagon which seated 7 people utilising a wooden framed construction made by Tickford. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickford) This model was far better equipped having a heater, a one piece laminated windscreen and various other options. The vehicle was sold as a private car which led to high levels of purchase tax resulting in relatively few vehicles being sold.

Around 1952 new larger engines of 2.0 litres were introduced and the legal status of the Land Rover was resolved. Up until this time the Land Rover had been classed as a commercial vehicle which meant that its top speed was limited to 30mph. on British Roads. This status was changed to that which we see today which is ‘multi-purpose vehicle’. In 1954 the 86 inch and 107 inch wheelbase models were introduced. These extensions to the wheelbase provided more carriage space.

Series II & IIa Land Rover

Land Rover Series II 1959

In 1958 the Series II was introduced. This utilised a larger 2.25 litre engine, had wheelbase options of 88 and 109 inches and a more modern body shape. The series IIa, introduced in 1961, used a 2.25 litre diesel engine. Further development of the Series IIa led to the 12 seater station wagon. In 1967 Rover and British Leyland merged. In 1970 they launched the Range Rover. This was followed by the Series III Land Rover in 1971. In 1994 British Aerospace sold the Rover Group to BMW and in 2000 BMW sold Land Rover to Ford. This move preceded the second major redesign of the Range Rover which was launched in 2002.

Lattest Model

Jaguar Racing

Jaguar’s racing history started during the 1950s. The company decided to participate in the Le Mans racing with the production of XK-120. Even though the car failed to win in its initial race, the very next year was historic for Jaguar. With the production of the C-Type car of XK120, the company went on to win the Le Mans. Jaguar won again in Le Mans in 1953 and again from 1955 to 1958. It was the Ferrari of 1960s that ended the run of brilliance of then Jaguar D-type. It was only in 1988 Jaguar came again to win with the XJR-9LM edition. Up to date, Jaguar is yet to win another Le Mans race.

It was during the year 2000 that Jaguar decided to join the very competitive F1 racing. Jaguar bought the team previously owned by Jackie Stewart and the name Stewart Grand Prix Formula One Team was renamed to Jaguar Racing. The engines of the F1 racing car featured the Jaguar R series for its chassis and features Cosworth Engines. The team was in high hopes as they hire runner up finisher Eddie Irvine. Also a good addition to the team was the former driver for the Stewart, Johnny Herbert. However, the company has little to no success during the Jaguars stint in Formula 1 racing. Jaguar, racing in its four years stint, never won the Constructor’s Championship, Drivers Championship or even a starting pole position in any of its races. The best finish of the team during its stint was 2002 with Irvine finishing 9th place. Clearly, Jaguar’s place in racing history seemed to be non-existent because of mismanagement of the team and its resources.

Ford, its parent company decided to end its F1 race in after the 2004 season. The Jaguar Racing team was purchased and replaced by Red Bull for the 2005 season.

Jaguar History

Jaguar started in 1922 under the legendary name Swallow Sidecar Company or the SS. The original proprietors of the company were William Lyons and William Walmsley. The company officially changed its name to Jaguar in 1935. The production of cars stopped during the World War II and the company manufactured only sidecars and airplane parts during those hard times.

The company again regenerated its production in 1948 with the release of the XK120 sports car. Only 200 cars were originally planned to be placed in production. However demands has been high and the company since then released other editions based on the XK120 considered by some as the fastest car during that time. Production of this car went on until the late 50s.

The 1960 was the dawn of the E-type vehicles. These types of vehicles were also known as the XKE type of vehicles. It was during that time the company also merged with Daimler Cars originally owned by the Birmingham Small Arms Company. E-Type series continued its production until the early 70s.

1974 was the release of XJ series of Jaguar Cars with XJ12 Saloon. These types of cars continued in production until today. It was during the 1970 until late 80s the car was regarded to be reliable. However, its status as the premier sports and luxury car was revived when the company was officially bought by Ford in 1989. Four years after, JaguarXJ12 was born yet again with a different body.

Currently, the three latest cars designed by Jaguar are the XKR for sports-type vehicles, XJ8 for luxury cars and the C-XF for compact luxury cars. The XF was unveiled only in January, and is planned to be in production in 2008. C-XF is known to be a departure from other car designs. Its looks are still compact but it has a big of edgy sports car kind of feel– only that it has four doors instead of two.

The History of the Telephone

Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray raced to invent the telephone.

In the 1870s, two inventors Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell both independently designed devices that could transmit speech electrically (the telephone). Both men rushed their respective designs to the patent office within hours of each other, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone first. Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell entered into a famous legal battle over the invention of the telephone, which Bell won.

Alexander Graham Bell - Evolution of the Telegraph into the Telephone

The telegraph and telephone are both wire-based electrical systems, and Alexander Graham Bell's success with the telephone came as a direct result of his attempts to improve the telegraph.

When Bell began experimenting with electrical signals, the telegraph had been an established means of communication for some 30 years. Although a highly successful system, the telegraph, with its dot-and-dash Morse code, was basically limited to receiving and sending one message at a time. Bell's extensive knowledge of the nature of sound and his understanding of music enabled him to conjecture the possibility of transmitting multiple messages over the same wire at the same time. Although the idea of a multiple telegraph had been in existence for some time, Bell offered his own musical or harmonic approach as a possible practical solution. His "harmonic telegraph" was based on the principle that several notes could be sent simultaneously along the same wire if the notes or signals differed in pitch.

Alexander Graham Bell - Talk with Electricity

By October 1874, Bell's research had progressed to the extent that he could inform his future father-in-law, Boston attorney Gardiner Greene Hubbard, about the possibility of a multiple telegraph. Hubbard, who resented the absolute control then exerted by the Western Union Telegraph Company, instantly saw the potential for breaking such a monopoly and gave Bell the financial backing he needed. Bell proceeded with his work on the multiple telegraph, but he did not tell Hubbard that he and Thomas Watson, a young electrician whose services he had enlisted, were also exploring an idea that had occurred to him that summer - that of developing a device that would transmit speech electrically.

While Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson worked on the harmonic telegraph at the insistent urging of Hubbard and other backers, Bell nonetheless met in March 1875 with Joseph Henry, the respected director of the Smithsonian Institution, who listened to Bell's ideas for a telephone and offered encouraging words. Spurred on by Henry's positive opinion, Bell and Watson continued their work. By June 1875 the goal of creating a device that would transmit speech electrically was about to be realized. They had proven that different tones would vary the strength of an electric current in a wire. To achieve success they therefore needed only to build a working transmitter with a membrane capable of varying electronic currents and a receiver that would reproduce these variations in audible frequencies.

First Sounds - Twang

On June 2, 1875, Alexander Graham Bell while experimenting with his technique called "harmonic telegraph" discovered he could hear sound over a wire. The sound was that of a twanging clock spring.

Bell's greatest success was achieved on March 10, 1876, marked not only the birth of the telephone but the death of the multiple telegraph as well. The communications potential contained in his demonstration of being able to "talk with electricity" far outweighed anything that simply increasing the capability of a dot-and-dash system could imply.

First Voice - Mr. Watson, come here. I want to see you.

Alexander Graham Bell's notebook entry of 10 March 1876 describes his successful experiment with the telephone. Speaking through the instrument to his assistant, Thomas A. Watson, in the next room, Bell utters these famous first words, "Mr. Watson -- come here -- I want to see you."




This model of Bell's first telephone (right) is a duplicate of the instrument through which speech sounds were first transmitted electrically (1875). Alexander Graham Bell

The Wright Brothers - First Flight

In 1899, after Wilbur Wright had written a letter of request to the Smithsonian Institution for information about flight experiments, the Wright Brothers designed their first aircraft: a small, biplane glider flown as a kite to test the


ir solution for controlling the craft by wing warping. Wing warping is a method of arching the wingtips slightly to control the aircraft's rolling motion and balance.

The Wrights spent a great deal of time observing birds in flight. They noticed that birds soared into the wind and that the air flowing over the curved surface of their wings created lift. Birds change the shape of their wings to turn and maneuver. They believed that they could use this technique to obtain roll control by warping, or changing the shape, of a portion of the wing.

Over the next three years, Wilbur and his brother Orville would design a series of gliders which would be flown in both unmanned (as kites) and piloted flights. They read about the works of Cayley, and Langley, and the hang-gliding flights of Otto Lilienthal. They corresponded with Octave Chanute concerning some of their ideas. They recognized that control of the flying aircraft would be the most crucial and hardest problem to solve.

Following a successful glider test, the Wrights built and tested a full-size glider. They selected Kitty Hawk, North Carolina as their test site because of its wind, sand, hilly terrain and remote location.

In 1900, the Wrights successfully tested their new 50-pound biplane glider with its 17-foot wingspan and wing-warping mechanism at Kitty Hawk, in both unmanned and piloted flights. In fact, it was the first piloted glider. Based upon the results, the Wright Brothers planned to refine the controls and landing gear, and build a bigger glider.



In 1901, at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, the Wright Brothers flew the largest glider ever flown, with a 22-foot wingspan, a weight of nearly 100 pounds and skids for landing. However, many problems occurred: the wings did not have enough lifting power; forward elevator was not effective in controlling the pitch; and the wing-warping mechanism occasionally caused the airplane to spin out of control. In their disappointment, they predicted that man will probably not fly in their lifetime.

In spite of the problems with their last attempts at flight, the Wrights reviewed their test results and determined that the calculations they had used were not reliable. They decided to build a wind tunnel to test a variety of wing shapes and their effect on lift. Based upon these tests, the inventors had a greater understanding of how an airfoil (wing) works and could calculate with greater accuracy how well a particular wing design would fly. They planned to design a new glider with a 32-foot wingspan and a tail to help stabilize it.

During 1902, the brothers flew numerous test glides using their new glider. Their studies showed that a movable tail would help balance the craft and the Wright Brothers connected a movable tail to the wing-warping wires to coordinate turns. With successful glides to verify their wind tunnel tests, the inventors planned to build a powered aircraft.

After months of studying how propellers work the Wright Brothers designed a motor and a new aircraft sturdy enough to accommodate the motor's weight and vibrations. The craft weighed 700 pounds and came to be known as the Flyer.

The brothers built a movable track to help launch the Flyer. This downhill track would help the aircraft gain enough airspeed to fly. After two attempts to fly this machine, one of which resulted in a minor crash, Orville Wright took the Flyer for a 12-second, sustained flight on December 17, 1903. This was the first successful, powered, piloted flight in history.

In 1904, the first flight lasting more than five minutes took place on November 9. The Flyer II was flown by Wilbur Wright.

In 1908, passenger flight took a turn for the worse when the first fatal air crash occurred on September 17. Orville Wright was piloting the plane. Orville Wright survived the crash, but his passenger, Signal Corps Lieutenant Thomas Selfridge, did not. The Wright Brothers had been allowing passengers to fly with them since May 14, 1908.

In 1909, the U.S. Government bought its first airplane, a Wright Brothers biplane, on July 30. The airplane sold for $25,000 plus a bonus of $5,000 because it exceeded 40 mph.



In 1911, the Wrights' Vin Fiz was the first airplane to cross the United States. The flight took 84 days, stopping 70 times. It crash-landed so many times that little of its original building materials were still on the plane when it arrived in California. The Vin Fiz was named after a grape soda made by the Armour Packing Company.

In 1912, a Wright Brothers plane, the first airplane armed with a machine gun was flown at an airport in College Park, Maryland. The airport had existed since 1909 when the Wright Brothers took their government-purchased airplane there to teach Army officers to fly.

On July 18, 1914, an Aviation Section of the Signal Corps (part of the Army) was established. Its flying unit contained airplanes made by the Wright Brothers as well as some made by their chief competitor, Glenn Curtiss.

That same year, the U.S. Court has decided in favor of the Wright Brothers in a patent suit against Glenn Curtiss. The issue concerned lateral control of aircraft, for which the Wrights maintained they held patents.

Although Curtiss's invention, ailerons (French for "little wing"), was far different from the Wrights' wing-warping mechanism, the Court determined that use of lateral controls by others was "unauthorized" by patent law.

petronas tower:

PETRONAS Twin Towers or alternatively known as Petronas Towers was the world’s tallest building from 1998 to 2004, until it was surpassed by Taipei 101. The tower itself is located at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia with 88 habitable floors and 452 meters in height when measured from the main entrance to its pinnacle.
Nevertheless, the PETRONAS Twin Towers are the tallest twin towers in the world and is recognized as being the world’s tallest high rise of the 20th century.
The prominent features of the towers are the double-decked sky bridge, pinnacles and an advanced elevator system. Themain use of the building is for office space, although below the twin towers is Suria KLCC, a popular shopping mall and Dewan Filharmonik Petronas, the home of the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra.

The architectural design of the Petronas Twin Towers floor plan is based on simple Islamic geometric squares creating a shape of eight-pointed stars, reflecting unity within unity, harmony, stability and rationality.
To create more space, eight semi-circles were superimposed in the inner angles of the interlocked squares.
These semicircles are themselves anchored by the main structural columns of the buildings. The twin towers are symmetrically aligned and are connected with a suspended sky bridge.
The design details became prominent as the building rise in height towards the pinnacles. To maintain the vertical axis of the design, the towers are set back five times.

In the beginning, a race track was removed by the government as a move to ease the traffic congestion in that area. This opens up a 40ha piece of land worth hundreds of millions of ringgit, in the heart of KL free for redevelopment. With Petronas securing the financing of the development, Datuk Seri Dr Mahathir Mohammad, Prime Minister at that time wanted a building that would be identifiably Malaysian, that was of world class standards and which Malaysians could be proud of. Thus, an international design competition was held, with eight international firms invited. Finally, Cesar Pelli’s design, two slim 88-storey tower with a skybridge won the competition.
At first, there were no plans for the Petronas Towers to become the highest building in the world until Dr Mahathir suddenly thought of it; even during the building is already under construction. Mathematical recalculations were done and finally the plan to raise the height ofthe pinnacles is passed.

Construction started in 1993, with the piling of the world’s deepest foundations. The construction was done by two different contractors, sparking competition against each other. On the other hand, the towers were constructed with super high strength reinforced concrete due to the high cost of stete

At the top of the Petronas Twin Towers are structural steel pinnacles, which stood 73.5m tall. As two different contractors worked on the pinnacles, therefore one was made in Japan and the other South Korea.
Each pinnacle is composed of a spire, mast ball and ring ball. The ring ball consisted of 14 concentric tubes of differing diameters. In overall, the pinnacle is made up of 50 unique elements, lifted all piece by piece into place, making up a single 176 tonne in weight.
Functionally speaking, the pinnacle assembly are used to store aircraft warning lights and window washing equipment for the towers.

It was aIso the twin towers’ pinnacles that crowned the towers as the world’s tallest building in 1998 defined by the Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. This sparked controversy as the Sears Tower of USA is taller thanPetronas Twin Towers in the number of floors. However, under the rules used for rating the world’s tallest buildings, architectural spires count towards building height, while antennas atop a building do not.

The most prominent feature of the towers is the double-decked skybridge on the 41st and 42nd floors. The bridge is170m high and 58m long, providing access between the towers.

Center of skybridge as the observation deck with a circular window on top.

Interior of the skybridge on 42nd floor. The skybridge is open to all visitors.
Most high-rise buildings in the world use steel elements in their construction, but concrete was used instead of conventional steel in the construction of columns and core walls of the towers. Concrete was opted since it was a localmaterial that could be produced easily and Malaysia is quite sophisticated in concrete production which had ready labour in the industry. Besides, reinforced concrete also has twice the ability of steel to withstand vibrations.
To withstand 300,000 metric tonnes, a large concrete slab is used together with friction piles reinforced by grout (a mixture of sand and cement).

The polished facade is done with stainless steel extrusions and laminated glass covering or cladding the walls, reflecting Pelli’s vision of “multi-faceted diamond sparkling in the sun.” This minimizes heat gain by reflecting harmful UV light and unwanted solar radiation.

Each of the towers is supported by sixteen cylindrical columns that is made of concrete, encircling the core in the centre. They are placed on the inner corners of the star shaped plan with columns linked by slightly arched ring beams, also of concrete. The core and cylindrical frame system is constructed from in-situ high-strength concrete, including smaller perimeter columns around the two bustles. Some structural steel was used for typically long span floor beams to support concrete-filled metal deck slabs.

Horizontal steel bars or ‘teardrop’ and ‘bullnose’ steel sections are built into the polished facade which frames and linesthe open glass area. These sun screen brackets provide shade for the building and provide the appearance of flowing silver ribbon.
“For the Petronas Twin Towers, I tried to express the essences of the country. The building is rooted in tradition, but it is mostly about Malaysia’s aspiration and ambition,” said architect Cesar Pelli.

Petronas Towers

At a staggering 452 meters in height the Petronas Towers dominate the skyline in Kuala Lumpur. The Petronas Towers are the worlds “tallest freestanding” towers in the world housing an assortment of office buildings, a contemporary concert hall and the Malaysian Philharmonic Orchestra in the Petronas Malaysia Philharmonic Hall. The geometric impressions on both towers are often found in Islamic architecture. Two overlaid and rotated squares each encompass small, rounded in fillings adorned on the Petronas Towers. Many architects describe this special pattern as symbolizing stability, unity, harmony and rationale which are all important Islamic principles. Special highlights of the Petronas Towers include high-speed double deck elevators and an exciting double deck Sky Bridge.
The Petronas Towers are joined only at the 41st and the 42nd floor where the Sky Bridge is. Walking along the Sky Bridge is one of the main events when on a Malaysia tour of this captivating development. The bridge spans an astonishing 192 feet. There is a tour of the Sky Bridge available at Petronas Malaysia where you can enjoy a panoramic city view below. The tour is a short 10 minutes and leads up to the bridge. The best time to go is early in the morning to beat the long lines that can develop. Tickets are handed out on a first-come-first-served basis and you can choose the tour time when you get tickets. The Sky Bridge is open from 9:00am to 5:00pm from Tuesday through Sunday and is free.
Inside the Petronas Twin Tower Kuala Lumpur merchants line the first few floors. There are also arcades, and an assortment of restaurants. There is an interesting Science Museum you can visit that’s great when on a family-oriented Malaysia holiday. Kuala Lumpur attractions nearby are easily visited after a climb to the top of the Petronas Twin Tower during a Malaysia vacation. When visiting the Petronas Twin Tower Kuala Lumpurs city center will surround you with many more beautiful buildings. Often called a “city within a city” the area is large and stretches in every direction.
Situated between the Petronas Towers is one of the best shopping destinations in Kuala Lumpur, Suria KLCC, containing a huge array of merchandise to peruse. With six levels to explore a trip here can easily eat up an entire day if you like to shop! The Mandarin Oriental is due south of Suria KLCC and is considered to be the most affluent of Kuala Lumpur hotels. Though many can’t afford the high costs to stay, if you really wish to see the elegant interior try one of their restaurants for a five star dining experience.
In the immediate vicinity, the Kuala Lumpur Convention Center can also be found. In addition to hosting many international events and trade shows The Aquaria Oceanarium is also inside. This is said to be the biggest aquarium in the world. It features more than 5,000 marine and aquatic animals with exhibits highlighting 150 native and international species. The Batu Cave is a major attraction in the city and not to be missed when in the area.
The KLCC Park is a wonder in itself, a massive green space in the middle of a huge and bustling city, much like Lumphini Park in Thailand. Don’t miss it after visiting Petronas Malaysia. The park is an attraction for the many things to do among the beautifully landscaped areas. With breathtaking views of Petronas Twin Tower, Kuala Lumpur shines in all her glory. Relaxing rest areas, a child’s pool, jogging track, Symphony Lake Fountains and more can all be found on the grounds. Many locals frequent the area during lunch time and visitors from all over the world walk the grounds admiring the beautiful pairing of nature with man’s creation.
Sprawling over 50-acres, the tropical gardens and lush foliage offer a haven of serenity and a respite from the dynamic and ever-busy inner city.

Great Wall of China

Great Wall of China

Theresa Muzzillo
Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China was very important in China throughout history. It was built and re-modeled throughout many historical dynasties of China. The Great Wall of China was built for several different reasons. It was constructed for protection from northern invaders; it partially unified China, and was later restored for the attraction of travelers.

There were several different dynasties that made what the Great Wall is today. The first dynasty to begin the construction of the Great Wall was the Qin Dynasty (221-206 B.C.). Shihuangdi built the Great Wall as a defense from northern invaders (7). Weapons of this time, such as arrows, could not reach over the extensive wall. The workers of the Qin Dynasty worked day and night (6). If they complained or attempted to run away and got caught, they suffered severe consequences of being buried alive (6). Most of the workers spent their whole lives building this wall (6) and about 70% of the China population was involved with the construction of this wonder (4). Why were so many people involved in this construction? The Great Wall was unifying China as a country inside the walls. After the Qin Dynasty, construction of the Great Wall didn’t stop. To see more on the Qin Dynasty, click here.

The Han Dynasty (202 B.C.- A.D. 220) continued to add onto and restore the construction of the Qin Dynasty. They extended the wall over 300 more miles through the Gobi Desert using materials such as twigs, red willow reeds, water and fine gravel (4). The Han Dynasty also built beacon towers that were placed about 15-30 miles apart along the wall. Smoke signals from columns were used to warn the defenders of an attack (4). There were several advancements made to the Great Wall in the Han Dynasty that improved and "updated" the wall. The reconstruction did not stop here. It continued into the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). To see more on the Han Dynasty, click here.
The Ming Dynasty was when most of the reconstruction was made and the crumbling walls were rebuilt (4). They added many miles to what already existed in addition to restoring it. The Ming Dynasty built more of the wall than any other dynasty before it. Along with their extensive addition, they built the wall with huge heavy bricks made from clay (6) and granite blocks (1). If all the bricks were taken from only the portion of the wall built during the Ming Dynasty, they would circle the Earth at the equator in a wall five feet high and three feet thick. Modern canons were built along the wall in strategic locations and the watchtowers were redesigned with sophistication (1). To see more on the Ming Dynasty, click here.

After the Ming Dynasty reconstructed the wall for over 200 years, it is now only being restored for the attraction of travelers (4). Throughout the 1,000 years of construction of the Great Wall, 3,000 people died building it. That is more than 300 people per mile (4). After about 2,500 years of the Great Wall standing, it has extended over 6,000 miles at one point reaching from the Yalu River in Northeast China, to Gansu province in Northwest China (5). The actual length of the Great Wall varies from different authors, but it ranges from 3,000 to 4,500 miles (3/4). The actual length of the Great Wall was at one time 6,000 miles long. After lots of vandalism and erosion, the wall has reduced to become what it currently is now.

The Great Wall of China was built for several different reasons. In the Qin Dynasty, Shihuangdi built it for two different main reasons. One was to block the raids from the north, known as Central Asia. The second reason was China thought they were too "civilized" and they should be separated from the "barbaric" countries physically and culturally (Waldron). The Great Wall only protected China from the little invasions, so the Han Dynasty and Ming Dynasty extended onto the wall and increased its size in hope of preventing more invasions. This didn’t help very much because as the wall was developing, there were more advancements in weapons too. The Wall was especially helpful to warn China of invasions because they could see armies from their watchtowers. Re-modeling with advancements such as watchtowers and beacons helped to reach the main reason of building the wall... keeping out invaders (McNeese). After the Ming Dynasty, there was not a whole lot of reconstruction for reasons of protection from invaders. The main reason the Great Wall has been repaired in certain areas is for the attraction of travelers.

The Great Wall of China attracts an extensive amount of travelers every year. What attracts travelers to the Great Wall? It is such a great attraction for many different reasons. The wall is about 3,750 miles long and can even be seen from the moon (McNeese 12). The Great Wall is crumbling and some of it has been restored in areas such as Beijing because it is the most visited area and they want to keep it open to travelers. At one point the wall extended over 6,000 miles long. Travelers walk across the Great Wall of China where originally the width of the wall could fit 5 horse riders or 10-foot soldiers walking shoulder to shoulder (Feinstein 13). One of the highest points of the Great Wall is 35 feet tall. Many travelers are attracted to the watchtowers that are every 100-200 yards (Fryer 2). Each watchtower was about 40 feet high (Fryer 2). The Great Wall is made of granite blocks, stone and sometimes brick. This is interesting because of the way China adapted to the materials in their surroundings. Depending on the location of the wall determined what material to use. In the hill areas of the West, it is made of moistened earth materials and then pounded solid since stone and brick were scarce here. Not only are all these breath-taking features interesting, but the Wall also contained the amazing Ming Tombs. To see more on the Ming Tombs, click here. The Great Wall has been restored and fixed up throughout History to become what it is now and travelers walk across it as if it were one of the Seven Wonders of the World. After all these fascinating heights and lengths, I can understand why so many people would love to see the Great Wall.

The Great Wall went through over 1,000 years of being built and reconstructed through several different dynasties. In each dynasty, the Wall was repaired, "modernized", and added on to for different reasons. Even after those dynasties have fallen, the Great Wall is still being repaired and for yet another reason as to attract tourists and sightseers to the extravagant wonder. With all the amazing sights of the 40 foot watchtowers and extensive, perpetual walls… who wouldn’t want to visit the Great Wall?!?!

The Great Wall of China

The first major wall was built during the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty (221 B.C - 206 B.C.). It was created by joining several existing walls built previously by regional governments. This first wall was built much further north than the current Great Wall, and made of materials that have largely dissappeared over time.
The Great Wall that can still be seen today was built during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), on a much larger scale and made of stone on the sides and top. The wall housed garrisons, signal fires, and a messenger and postal service. The primary purpose was to make it difficult and slow for nomadic armies to get their horses across the wall. Without their horses the Huns were not a serious military threat. It is 4000 miles long, or 6400 km., and is visible from Earth orbit.

Taj Mahal from the Gate

Design and Layout of Taj Mahal

Design and Layout of Taj Mahal

Overlooking the River Yamuna, and visible from the fort in the west, the Taj Mahal stands at the northern end of vast gardens enclosed by walls. Though its layout follows a distinctly Islamic theme, representing Paradise, it is above all a monument to romantic love. Shah Jahan built the Taj to enshrine the body of his favourite wife, Arjumand Banu Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal ("Elect of the Palace"), who died shortly after giving birth to her fourteenth child, in 1631.

Proud Architects of Taj Mahal

The names of the chief architect who worked on the Taj have been noted. Ismail Afandi, who designed the hemispheres and built the domes was from Turkey. Qazim Khan came from Lahore to cast the gold finial that would top the dome. Chiranji Lal was called from Delhi to pattern the mosaic. From Shiraz in Persia came master calligrapher, Amanat Khan. Stone cutter Amir Ali was from Baluchistan. Ustad Isa of Tukey is however credited to have been the main architect. It is believed that his design embodied much of what the Emperor wanted to express.

Agra, the Chosen City

Approach to the Taj: The walled complex is approached from the south through a red sandstone forecourt, Chowk-i Jilo Khana, whose wide paths, flanked by arched kiosks, run to high gates in the east and west. The original entrance, a massive arched gateway topped with delicate domes and adorned with Koranic verses, stands at the northern edge of Chowk-i Jilo Khana, directly aligned with the Taj, but shielding it from the view of those who wait outside. Today's entrance, complete with security checks, is through a narrow archway in the southern wall to the right of the gate.

Garden Mausoleum

The mighty marble tomb stands at the end of superb gardens designed in the charbagh style so fashionable among Moghul, Arabic and Persian architect. Dissected into four quadrants by waterways, they evoke the Islamic image of the Gardens of Paradise, where rivers flow with water, milk, wine and honey. The "rivers" converge at a marble tank in the centre that corresponds to al-Kawthar, the celestial pool of abundance mentioned in the Koran. Today only the watercourse running from north to south is full, and its precise, glassy reflection of the Taj is a favourite photographic image.

The Structure

Essentially square in shape, with peaked arches cut into its sides, the Taj Mahal surmounts a square marble platform marked at each corner by a high minaret. Topped with a huge central dome, it rises for over 55m, its height accentuated by a crowning brass spire, itself almost 17m high. On approach, the tomb looms ever larger and grander, but not until you are close do you appreciate both its awesome magnitude and the extraordinarily fine detail of relief carving, highlighted by floral patterns of precious stones. Carved vases of flowers including roses, tulips and narcissi, rise subtly out of the marble base, a pa ttern repeated more colourfully and inlaid with precious stones around the four great arched recesses (pishtaqs) on each side.

The Tomb

The south face of the tomb is the main entrance to the interior: a high, echoing octagonal chamber flushed with pallid light reflected by yellowing marble surfaces. A marble screen, cut so finely that it seems almost translucent, and decorated with precious stones, scatters dappled light over the cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal in the centre of the tomb, and that of Shah Jahan next to it. Inlaid stones on the marble tombs are the finest in Agra; attendants gladly illuminate the decorations with torches. The 99 names of Allah adorn the top of Mumtaz's tomb, and set into Shah Jahan's is a pen box, the hallmark of a male ruler. These cenotaphs, in accordance with Moghul tradition, are only representations of the real coffins, which lie in the same positions in an unadorned and humid crypt below that's heavy with the scent of heady incense and rose petals.

Mumtaz Mahal

Mumtaz Mahal

The year 1607 was a momentous year for Prince Khurram, the eldest son of Emperor Jahangir and his father's favourite. He was a young handsome prince accustomed to luxury and refinement. As he made his way to the Meena bazaar, the private market attached to the harem, he was surrounded by a string of fawning companions, all eager to catch his eye. Even at 15, young Khurram cut a dashing figure with his father's aristocratic nose, high forehead and large languid eyes. Every maid at the bazaar carried a torch for him.

The Flame

The Flame is LitArjumand Banu sat with her silks and glass beads at her shop. She was the daughter of Asaf Khan, the brother of the emperor Jahangir's consort, Noorjahan. Exquisitely pretty, Khurram was drawn to her. He saw a piece of glass at her stall and asked its worth. When she saucily replied that it was diamond and not glass he gave her ten thousand rupees (a sum she boldly said he could not afford), picked up the piece of glass and left carryimg with him her image in his mind.

Flamming Passions

The next day Khurram boldly presented his case before the Emperor seeking Arjumand's hand in marriage. The Emperor raised his hand in assent, perhaps recalling his own love for Noorjahan. However, five years were to pass before Khurram was to marry his beloved. Meanwhile, he was married to Quandari Begum, a Persian princess, for political reasons.

A Royal Marriage

The astrologers chose 1612 as auspicious for Khurranb's union with Arjumand. By now he was 20, and she, 19. It was a grand wedding, as befits an Emperor's son. Jahangir and Khurram went in procession, surrounded by nobles, musicians and dancers, acrobats, rare animals in cages, slaves and priests. Jahangir himself adorned Khurram with the wedding wreath of pearls. On the bride, he bestowed great honours.

A Perfect match

Deeply influenced by her aunt, Noorjahan, Arjumand Banu was, unlike her aunt, compassionate, generous and demure. Court poets woud celebrate her beauty saying the moon hid in shame before her. She was inseparable from Khurram and often accompanied him with an entourage when he went to fight wars. In her 19 years of marriage, she bore him 14 children, 7 of whom died in infancy.

Mumtaz Mahal
After Jahangir's death, Khurram became Shah Jahan and Arjumand Banu, Mumtaz Mahal. He built sumptuous palaces for her, for instance, the Khas Mahal in Agra fort. She daily rose in his confidence eventually giving her the royal seal, Muhr Uzah. She continually interceded on behalf of petitioners and gave allowances to widows and orphans. Like many royal ladies, she also had nerves of steel. She is said to have enjoyed the spectacle of men in combat with animals. Shah Jahan is believed to have persecuted the Portuguese at Hooghly at her behest.

Death of a Dream

Mumtaz Mahal died in childbirth in 1630 ib the Deccan where she had gone accompanying Shah Jahan as he went to war with Khan Jahanb Lodi. As she lay on her deathbed, it is said that she whispered to him to build for her a monument that would symbolize the beauty of their love. For a week Shah Jahan remained behind closed doors. When he emerged his hair had turned white, his back was bent, his face worn with despair. The entire kingdom was ordered into mourning for two years.

Tribute to Beauty

As a tribute to a beautiful woman and as a monument to enduring love, the Taj reveals its subtleties at leisure. The rectangular base of Taj is in itself symbolic of the different sides from which to view a beautiful woman. The main gate is like a veil to a woman's face which should be lifted delicately, gently and without haste on the wedding night. Shah Jahan surely had his chaste and exquisite bride in mind when he planned the Taj Mahal.

Taj Mahal Story

Male Protagonist: Shah Jahan (Prince Khurram)Female Protagonist: Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Banu Begum)Shah Jahan met Mumtaz Mahal and fell in love. He married her after five years and they were leading a very happy life. While giving birth to their last child, Mumtaz Mahal died due to some complications. A few years later Shah Jahan built the world's most beautiful monument "Taj Mahal" in the memory of his wife.One of the wonders of the world "Taj Mahal" has a beautiful love story behind its construction. Taj Mahal love story is about Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan, initially named Prince Khurram, took birth in the year 1592. The son of Jehangir, the fourth Mughal emperor of India, he fell in love in Arjumand Banu Begum at first time. At that time he was 14 years old and she, a Muslim Persian princess, was 15. After meeting her, Shah Jahan went back to his father and declared that he wanted to marry her. Read on to know more about the love story behind Taj Mahal of Agra…The match got solemnized after five years i.e., in the year 1612. Shah Jahan became the Emperor in the year 1628 and entrusted Arjumand Banu with the royal seal. He also bestowed her with the tile of Mumtaz Mahal, meaning the "Jewel of the Palace". Though Shah Jahan had other wives also, but, Mumtaz Mahal was his favorite and accompanied him everywhere, even on military campaigns. In the year 1631, when Mumtaz Mahal was giving birth to their 14th child, she died due to some complications.It is said that Shah Mahal was so heartbroken after her death that he ordered the court into morning for two years. Some time after her death, Shah Jahan undertook the task of erecting the world's most beautiful monument in the memory of his beloved. It took 22 years and the labor of 22,000 workers to construct the monument, which is also said to be the last wish of Mumtaz Mahal. This magnificent monument came to be known as "Taj Mahal" and now counts amongst the Seven Wonders of the World.This is the true story of the Taj Mahal of India, which has mesmerized many people with its bewitching beauty.

The history of the Taj Mahal tells us "why was the Taj Mahal built" and many other myths and facts associated with this wonderful structure. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan erected the Taj Mahal in the memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Shah Jahan (then Prince Khurram) met Mumtaz Mahal (then Arjumand Banu Begum) at the age of fourteen and fell in love at the first sight. She was a Muslim Persian princess and Shah Jahan was the son of the Mughal Emperor, Jehangir. Five years later, in 1612, they got married. As you read further you will come to know more about the history of the Taj Mahal at Agra…Mumtaz Mahal, an inseparable companion of Shah Jahan, died in 1631, while giving birth to their 14th child. It is believed that during her last moments, Mumtaz Mahal obtained a promise from Shah Jahan that he will build world's most beautiful monument in her memory. But this has not been proven to be true, till date. However, Shah Jahan did indeed build a magnificent monument as a tribute to her wife, which we today know as the "Taj Mahal". Shah Jahan, himself also, lies entombed in this mausoleum along with his wife.The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it took approximately 22 years to build it. An epitome of love, it made use of the services of 22,000 laborers and 1,000 elephants. It was built entirely out of white marble, which was brought in from all over India and central Asia. After an expenditure of approximately 32 million rupees (approx US $68000), Taj Mahal was finally completed in the year 1653. However, the history of Taj Mahal of India still has some gaps. For example, there are many theories regarding the architect of this magnificent monument.

The History Of Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal History
The history of Taj Mahal is as legendary as the monument itself is. If you look into the Taj Mahal history, it will take you back into the royal grandeur of Mughal era when the art, culture and architecture in India were at its zenith. An architectural masterpiece of a kind of its own in the world, The Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jehan in memory of his beloved queen Arjumand Bano Begum, popularly known as Mumtaz Mahal, who died in 1630 while giving birth to their 14th child at a young age of 38. According to history of Taj Mahal, it's said that Mumtaz took three promises from her husband Shah Jehan on death bed, and one was that "he would build a tomb in her memory such as the world had never seen before". And keeping his promises Shah Jehan build Taj Mahal as an architectural wonder that never fails to enchant its visitors. You too can visit the beautiful Taj Mahal and appreciate its architectural greatness on your Agra Travel with Hotels Agra India.

According to Taj Mahal history, its construction was started in 1631 and completed at the end of 1648 AD. A large number of craftsmen, sculptors and calligraphers from Persia, Baghdad, and Europe were employed to build the Taj Mahal, an architectural marvel in white marble. The history of Taj Mahal tells us that over 20,000 workmen toiled day and night for seventeen years to build this architectural extravaganza. A small town called Mumtazabad, named after the deceased empress Mumtaz Mahal, was built first to accommodate such a large number of laborers, craftsmen, sculptors and calligraphers.

According to history of the Taj Mahal, it's believed that Ustad Ahmad Lahori, a master architect of the age, designed this wonderful architecture. Amanat Khan Shirazi was the calligrapher of Taj Mahal, and his name occurs at the end of an inscription on one of the gates of this beautiful monument. Muhammad Hanif was the superintendent of Masons, while Ismail Khan Afridi of Turkey designed the giant dome. For the construction of the Taj Mahal, the materials were brought in from all over India and central Asia. While white marble was brought from Makrana Rajasthan, Red sandstone was brought from the nearby Fatehpur Sikri; Jasper from Punjab; Jade and Crystal from China; Turquoise from Tibet; Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire from Sri Lanka; Coal and Cornelian from Arabia; and diamonds from Panna. It's believed that it took a fleet of 1,000 elephants to transport the building material of Taj Mahal to the site. According to Taj Mahal history, in all 28 kinds of rare, semi precious and precious stones were used for inlay work in the Taj Mahal. Visit Taj Mahal and discover the fascinating details about this wonderful architecture in white marble.

A Quick History of Bicycles

The Walking Machine

In 1817 Baron von Drais invented a walking machine that would help him get around the royal gardens faster: two same-size in-line wheels, the front one steerable, mounted in a frame which you straddled. The device was propelled by pushing your feet against the ground, thus rolling yourself and the device forward in a sort of gliding walk. The machine became known as the Draisienne or hobby horse. It was made entirely of wood. This enjoyed a short lived popularity as a fad, not being practical for transportation in any other place than a well maintained pathway such as in a park or garden.

The Velocipede or Boneshaker

The next appearance of a two-wheeled riding machine was in 1865, when pedals were applied directly to the front wheel. This machine was known as the velocipede ("fast foot"), but was popularly known as the bone shaker, since it was also made entirely of wood, then later with metal tires, and the combination of these with the cobblestone roads of the day made for an extremely uncomfortable ride. They also became a fad, and indoor riding academies, similar to roller rinks, could be found in large cities.

The High Wheel Bicycle

In 1870 the first all metal machine appeared. (Previous to this metallurgy was not advanced enough to provide metal which was strong enough to make small, light parts out of.) The pedals were still atttached directly to the front wheel with no freewheeling mechanism. Solid rubber tires and the long spokes of the large front wheel provided a much smoother ride than its predecessor. The front wheels became larger and larger as makers realized that the larger the wheel, the farther you could travel with one rotation of the pedals. You would purchase a wheel as large as your leg length would allow. This machine was the first one to be called a bicycle ("two wheel"). These bicycles enjoyed a great popularity among young men of means (they cost an average worker six month's pay), with the hey-day being the decade of the 1880s.




Because the rider sat so high above the center of gravity, if the front wheel was stopped by a stone or rut in the road, or the sudden emergence of a dog, the entire apparatus rotated forward on its front axle, and the rider, with his legs trapped under the handlebars, was dropped unceremoniously on his head. Thus the term "taking a header" came into being.

The High Wheel Tricycle

While the men were risking their necks on the high wheels, ladies, confined to their long skirts and corsets, could take a spin around the park on an adult tricycle. These machines also afforded more dignity to gentlemen such as doctors and clergymen. Many mechanical innovations now associated with the automobile were originally invented for tricycles. Rack and pinion steering, the differential, and band brakes, to name a few!

The High Wheel Safety

Improvements to the design began to be seen, many with the small wheel in the front to eliminate the tipping-forward problem. One model was promoted by its manufacturer by being ridden down the front steps of the capitol building in Washington, DC. These designs became known as high-wheel safety bicycles. Since the older high-wheel designs had been known simply as bicycles, they were now referred to as "ordinary bicycles" in comparison with the new-fangled designs, and then simply as "ordinaries."

The Hard-Tired Safety


The further improvement of metallurgy sparked the next innovation, or rather return to previous design. With metal that was now strong enough to make a fine chain and sprocket small and light enough for a human being to power, the next design was a return to the original configuration of two same-size wheels, only now, instead of just one wheel circumference for every pedal turn, you could, through the gear ratios, have a speed the same as the huge high-wheel. The bicycles still had the hard rubber tires, and in the absence of the long, shock-absorbing spokes, the ride they provided was much more uncomfortable than any of the high-wheel designs. Many of these bicycles of 100 years ago had front and/or rear suspensions. These designs competed with each other, your choice being the high-wheel's comfort or the safety's safety, but the next innovation tolled the death of the high-wheel design.



The Pnuematic-Tired Safety



The pnuematic tire was first applied to the bicycle by an Irish veterinarian who was trying to give his young son a more comfortable ride on his tricycle. This inventive young doctor's name was Dunlop. Sound familar? Now that comfort and safety could be had in the same package, and that package was getting cheaper as manufacturing methods improved, everyone clamored to ride the bicycle. This 1898 Yale uses a shaft drive to dispense with the dirty chain.The bicycle was what made the Gay Ninties gay. It was a practical investment for the working man as transportation, and gave him a much greater flexibility for leisure. Ladies, heretofore consigned to riding the heavy adult size tricycles that were only practical for taking a turn around the park, now could ride a much more versatile machine and still keep their legs covered with long skirts. The bicycle craze killed the bustle and the corset, instituted "common-sense dressing" for women and increased their mobility considerably. In 1896 Susan B. Anthony said that "the bicycle has done more for the emancipation of women than anything else in the world."Bicycling was so popular in the 1880s and 1890s that cyclists formed the League of American Wheelman (still in existence and now called the League of American Bicyclists). The League lobbied for better roads, literally paving the road for the automobile.

The Kid's Bike

Introduced just after the First World War by several manufacturers, such as Mead, Sears Roebuck, and Montgomery Ward, to revitalize the bike industry (Schwinn made its big splash slightly later), these designs, now called "classic", featured automobile and motorcyle elements to appeal to kids who, presumably, would rather have a motor. If ever a bike needed a motor, this was it. These bikes evolved into the most glamorous, fabulous, ostentatious, heavy designs ever. It is unbelievable today that 14-year-old kids could do the tricks that we did on these 65 pound machines! They were built into the middle '50s, by which time they had taken on design elements of jet aircraft and even rockets. By the '60s, they were becoming leaner and simpler.

The Current Scene

Pedaling History has on display even the recent history of the bicycle in America that we are more familiar with: the "English 3-speed" of the '50s through the '70s, the 10-speed derailleur bikes which were popular in the '70s (the derailleur had been invented before the turn of the century and had been in more-or-less common use in Europe since), and of course the mountain bike of right now. There are also many oddball designs that never quite made it, including the Ingo (you have to see it to believe it!)

The fastest motorcycle in the world.

A machine that captivates the gaze. I've long been fascinated by the the Suzuki Hayabusa. I think it will be only a short time until I own one.
Each trip to the dealer to check out this bike is like a pilgrimage to Mecca. To those of us who saw the sportbike evolve over the last 15 years. From the '86 GSXR750 to where we stand today, this bike is by far the pinnacle of progress.

When I look at it- it seem huge. But once I'm riding, it feels like a toy.
The Hayabusa in unlike anything I have ever ridden before. It's more refined than my ZX-11. When you rev the motor and accelerate off into the distance, it feels designed for this. As if it's sole purpose were entrenched in allowing the ride to travel at any velocity in relative safety and ease.

I realize now the level of discipline and restraint it requires to own this bike. Well, maybe I wouldn't call it restraint, but just plain discipline. The whole package takes some readjusting as to what you might think of as normal. You're headed down the freeway, the speedometer indicates 70 mph, yet it barely seems to have risen around it's circular path.
One of the most interesting things I ever read about the Hayabusa is instead of pulling wheelies when you grab a fistful of throttle, instead the bike will rocket forward and slowly pull the front tire off the ground.

When you sit upon this bike, it has a wondrous feel that occurs when your hands contact the handlebars. It's a tingle that flows through your wrists, arms, shoulders and causes a sensation of warmth to flow across your chest.
Torque is a wonderful thing.
Horsepower, is a very wonderful thing.